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II. SUMATRA - SUNDALAND

This chapter II of the Bibliography 7.0 contains 310 pages with about 2250 titles, subdivided in five sub-chapters II.1- II.5. It includes literature on the relatively old and stable continental crustal region of West Indonesia ('Sundaland'), a collage of continental blocks, volcanic arcs and accretionary terranes that (1) amalgamated in Late Triassic time with the Eurasia continent and (2) grew further in Cretaceous time by accretionary of terranes along the active margins of West Sumatra, SE Kalimantan, North Borneo and the Natuna area.

It includes the large islands of Sumatra, Java and Borneo, island that are now separated by a shallow, broad, recently flooded shelfal region, the Sunda Shelf.

The chapter is organized as follows:

The attached pdf consists of both a detailed bibliography as well as lengthy introductions for each of the sub-chapters.

Download pdf - Chapter II. SUMATRA - SUNDALAND (10.99 MB)

II.1. Sumatra - General

The geology of Sumatra was ably summarized recently in the comprehensive volume by Barber, Crow and Milsom (editors) (2005). Additional information may be found in the >1780 Sumatra papers listed in this bibliography.

Sumatra is SW part of the continental Sundaland block and is located above an active subduction zone of the North-moving Indian Ocean plate. Its main physiographic elements are:

  1. The ‘spine’ of Sumatra island is the Barisan Mountains Range, which is primarily an active volcanic arc, built on basement substrate of deformed and uplifted Late Paleozoic- Early Mesozoic sediments, igneous and volcanic rocks, a Cretaceous accretionary complex (Woyla Group) and a Late Paleogene arc system.
  2. The area behind the arc is occupied mainly by the Cenozoic North, Central and South Sumatra basins, which are separated by basement highs
  3. In front of the volcanic arc are the onshore and offshore parts of the Sumatra forearc, composed of continental basement that has also undergone phases of basin formation, but shows little or no evidence of compressinal deformation;
  4. The belt of "Outer Arc' Mentawai islands (Simeulue, Nias, etc.) represents the exposed parts of the accretionary prism formed at the Sunda Trench. It is composed of complexly folded and imbricated Tertiary sediments, with slivers of ophiolites.

SW-NE cross-section across the Barisan Range West of the South Sumatra basin (Westerveld 1941). Showing active Dempo volcano above the Gumai Mountains basement complex, which is part of a mid-Cretaceous collisional complex (‘Woyla Terranes’)

SW-NE cross-section across the Barisan Range West of the South Sumatra basin (Westerveld 1941). Showing active Dempo volcano above the Gumai Mountains basement complex, which is part of a mid-Cretaceous collisional complex (‘Woyla Terranes’)

The Pretertiary ‘basement’ complex of the large island of Sumatra is composed of highly deformed Late Paleozoic- Mesozoic sediments and associated volcanic and igneous rocks. The intense compressional deformation and juxtaposition of unrelated stratigraphies was already recognized by Tobler (1917), which led him to propose a tectonic model with large Alpine-style nappes.

The first regional synthesis of the Sumatra basement terranes in modern plate tectonic terms was by Pulunggono and Cameron (1984) and Pulunggono (1985). Later papers on this topic include Hutchison (1994), McCourt et al. (1996), Barber and Crow (2005), Kusnama and Andi Mangga (2007) and Ridd (2016).

All authors recognized that the geology of most of Sumatra is a continuation of that of the Malay Peninsula, with its Gondwana-derived terranes that amalgamated in the Late Triassic to form 'Sundaland'. Much of Sumatra is part of the Sibumasu Block (= Shan-Tai terrane = Mergui + Malacca microplates of Pulunggono and Cameron 1984), as evidenced by the 'Gondwanan' Early Permian glacial diamictites of the Bohorok Formation in much of North and Central Sumatra, which is the equivalent of the Singa Formation of the NW Malay Peninsula and the Phuket Group of Peninsular Thailand. This terrane is generally recognized as part of the 'Cimmerian Terranes' that that separated from the North Gondwana margin in Early Permian and collided with Eurasia in Late Triassic time.

In Cretaceous time the SW margin of Sumatra/Sundaland grew with the collision of the ‘Woyla terranes’, an amalgamation of Cretaceous magmatic arc and accretionary complex with several microcontinental terranes (Natal, Sikuleh Terranes; Cameron et al. 1980, Wajzer et al. 1991, Barber 2000). Most of the present-day fore-arc region of Sumatra (probably also of the West Java forearc and all of East Java) may be part of this ‘Woyla’ complex.

Early reviews of Sumatra mineral deposits were by Wing Easton (1926); more recent reviews are by Crow and Van Leeuwen (2005) and Van Leeuwen (2014). Epithermal gold-silver deposits have been exploited on Sumatra since the 1700's, first on behalf of the ‘Dutch East Indies Company’ (VOC), later by the colonial government and by private enterprises.

Economic mineral deposits of Sumatra are essentially in two groups :

  1. Gold, silver and copper deposits all along the Barisan Range, and associated with the volcanic arc and the Great Sumatran Fault Zone;
  2. Tin deposits, associated with eroded Mesozoic post-collisional 'tin granites' of Sundaland, mainly of Late Triassic- Early Jurassic ages, possibly also Cretaceous tin granites

II.2. Sumatra - Cenozoic Basins, Stratigraphy, Hydrocarbons, Coal

Pre-Tertiary basement of Sumatra is unconformably overlain by sediments of multiple Late Eocene-Oligocene rift basins and their succeeding broader Mio-Pliocene sag basins. In the western half of Sumatra is dominated by arc volcanics, mainly of Oligocene- Early Miocene and Late Miocene-Recent ages.

Cenozoic basins stratigraphy
Most of the Tertiary basins of Sumatra show a similar tectonostratigraphic succession:

  1. Late Cretaceous- ?Middle Eocene: non-deposition: widespread exposure of Sumatra after ~80 Ma Woyla terrane collision (Cottam 2011?, Zahirovic et al. 2016);
  2. Late Eocene- Oligocene rifting, with deposition of fluvial, alluvial and lacustrine sediments;
  3. Latest Oligocene- earliest Miocene transgressive 'sag phase', with several overall backstepping deltaic cycles, In North and South Sumatra basins followed by locally developed reefal limestone (Baturaja/ Basal Telisa Limestone);
  4. Early- early Middle Miocene maximum marine phase (Telisa/ Gumai Fm shales); regional seal
  5. Middle Miocene and younger regressive phase (overall shalowing-upward from marine to deltaic deposits (Lower Palembang/ Air Benakat Fms);
  6. late Middle- Late Miocene fluvial deposits with locally common coal (Middle Palembang/ Muara Enim Fm);
  7. Late? Pliocene- Recent volcanics/ volcanoclastics-dominated formations (Upper Palembang Fm).
Structure map of Sumatra, showing Great Sumatra wrench fault in the Barisan Range and anticlinal axes in the backarc areas, which are at an angle to the Barisan trend (Wilcox, Harding and Seeley, 1973).

Structure map of Sumatra, showing Great Sumatra wrench fault in the Barisan Range and anticlinal axes in the backarc areas, which are at an angle to the Barisan trend (Wilcox, Harding and Seeley, 1973).

Sumatra oil and gas fields
Sumatra has long been Indonesia's most important hydrocarbon province, with oil and gas production from the North, Central and South Sumatra 'back-arc' basins since the late 1800's. Oil and gas seeps are also known from forearc areas (oil in Bengkulu basin, gas in offshore forearc region), but no commercial deposits have been identified here.

Most oils are sourced from lacustrine and coaly facies in Paleogene rift basins, and are trapped in anticlinal structures formed during the 'Plio-Pleistocene orogeny'; other traps drape over paleotopographic highs (e.g. Harsa 1978).

Sumatra Coal
Sumatra is home to the largest coal mines of Indonesia. The most important coal deposits are in the Middle- Late Miocene of the South Sumatra basin, but coal is also mined from the Eocene of the Ombilin intermontane basin in the Barisan Mountains and in small mines in the Miocene of the onshore Bengkulu Basin in the SW Sumatra fore-arc zone.

Coal in Sumatra is present in three or four formations, in order of importance:

  1. Middle - Late Miocene of the 'regressive phase' of the South Sumatra Basin: mined extensively in the Muara Enim area;
  2. Late Eocene -Oligocene in the late rift phase of the Central and South Sumatra basins and the Ombilin basin: mined in the Ombilin basin since the late 1800's;
  3. Early Permian coal in the Mengkareng Formation in the West Jambi area: thin, non-commercial, but of interest due to its association with plant fossils of the Cathaysian 'Jambi Flora'.

Suggest Reading: Sumatra- Sumatra- General and Basins (not a complete list of all relevant papers)

General, Structure Verbeek 1875, 1876, 1877, Tobler 1914, 1917, 1922, Brouwer 1915,Moerman 1916, Klein 1918, Kugler 1921, Rutten 1927, Musper 1928, 1930, 1934, Van Bemmelen 1931,1949, Klompe 1955, Katili 1974, Sasajima et al. 1978, Page et al. 1979, Hahn and Weber 1981, Suparka and Asikin 1981, Davies 1984, Pulunggono and Cameron 1984,Pulunggono 1985, Moulds 1989, Clure 1991, Surono et al. 1999, McCarthy and Elders 1997, Barber 2000, Gafoer 2002, Barber, Crow and Milsom 2005, Milsom 2005, 2016, Barber and Crow 2003, 2005, 2009, Ridd 2016
North Sumatra Volz 1899, 1909, 1912, Wing Easton 1894, Zwierzycki 1922, 'T Hoen 1922, Van Lohuizen 1924, British Geol. Survey N Sumatra Cameron, Clarke; 1980's), Kirby et al. 1989, 1993, Davies 1989, Tiltman 1990, Wajzer et al. 1991, Yulihanto and Situmorang 2002, Hidayatillah et al. 2017)
West Sumatra Verbeek 1875-1919, Fennema 1887, Volz. 1899-1914
South Sumatra Verbeek 1881, Tobler 1903-1925, Musper 1928-1937, Van Bemmelen 1930, 1949Westerveld 1941, Westerveld 1931-1941, Wennekers 1958, Pulunggono 1969, 1986, 1992, Panggabean et al. 2007
Paleozoic- Mesozoic Roemer 1881, Krumbeck 1914, Meyer 1922, Baumberger 1922, 1925, Tobler 1923
Paleontology Silvestri 1925, 1935, Lange 1925, Posthumus 1927, Tan Sin Hok 1933, Yabe 1946, De Neve 1949, 1961, Kobayashi and Masatani 1968, Yancey and Alif 1977, Fontaine et al. 1981, 1992, Beauvais et al. 1985, 1989, Tien 1986, 1989, Vachard 1989, Metcalfe 1979-1989, Hasibuan 1993, Kato et al. 1999, McCarthy et al. 2001, Booi et al. 2008, 2009, 2017, Crippa et al. 2014,
Sumatra Fault zone Durham 1940, Westerveld 1953, Katili 1969, 1970, Tjia 1970, 1972, 1977, Posavec et al. 1973, McCarthy et al. 1977, Kristanto 1991, Bellier et al. 1991, 1997,Bellier and Sebrier 1994, 1995, Beaudouin et al. 1995, Sieh and Natawidjaja 2000, Prawirodirdjo et al. 2000, Natawidjaja 2002, 2007, 2014, 2018,Situmorang and Yulihanto 2007, Weller et al. 2012, Fernandez-Blanco et al. 2016, Putra and Husein 2016
Sumatra granites Katili 1962, Hutchison 1989, Sato 1991, Cobbing et al. 1992, Subandrio 2003, 1997,Subandrio and Suparka 1994, Gasparon and Varne 1995, Saefudin 2000, Sukarna et al. 2000, Hartono 2002
Sumatra volcanism Kemmerling 1921, Westerveld 1942, 1947, 1952, Katili 1968, 1969, Rock et al. 1982,Gasparon 1993, 2005, McCourt et al. 1996, Sutanto 1997, 1998, 2005,Bellon et al. 2004, Crow 2005, Soeria-Atmadja and Noeradi 2005, Harahap 2006, 2011, Zulkarnain 2005-2016
Mining Truscott 1912, Wing Easton 1926, Koolhoven and Aernout 1928, Osberger 1954,Van Leeuwen et al. 1987, Schwartz and Surjono 1990, Lubis et al. 2000,Crow and Van Leeuwen 2005, Subandrio 2007,2009, 2012, Maryono et al. 2014, Van Leeuwen 2014, McCarroll et al. 2014, Rivai et al. 2017, Setiawan 2017
South Sumatra oil-gas Tobler 1906,1913, 1918, Hovig 1917, Dufour 1957, De Coster 1974, Akuanbantin and Ardiputra 1976, Harsa 1978, Hutapea 1981, 1988, 2002, Wahab and Purnomo 1982, Kalan et al. 1984, Martadinata 1984, 1999, Zeliff et al. 1985, Hasan and. Soebandrio 1988, Pertamina BPPKA1996, Rashid et al. 1998, Agus et al. 2005, Argakoesoemah et al.2004, 2005, 2006, Ginger and Fielding 2005, Firmansyah et al. 2007, Guttormsen 2010
Central Sumatra oil-gas De Coster 1974, Hasan et al. 1977, Houpt and Kersting 1978, Eubank and Makki 1981, Williams et al. 1985, 1995, Robinson and Kamal 1988, Longley et al. 1990, Heidrick and Aulia 1993, Kelley et al. 1995, Pertamina BPPKA1996, Katz and Dawson 1997, Toha et al. 1999, Dawson et al. 2005,
North Sumatra oil- gas Graves and Weegar 1973, Kingston 1978, McArthur et al. 1982, Mundt 1983,Soeparjadi 1983, Nayoan et al. 1984, Abdullah and Jordan 1987, Courteney et al. 1990, Rory 1990, Jordan and Abdullah 1992, Caughey and Wahyudi 1993, Fuse et al. 1996, Buck and McCulloh 1994, Collins et al. 1996, Pertamina BPPKA1996, Meckel et al. 2012, Meckel 2013
Ombilin basin coal Verbeek 1875, Wally 1939, Whateley and Jordan 1989.
South Sumatra Coal Everwijn 1860, 1873, Hirschi 1916, Philippi 1918, Tromp 1919, Anonymous 1919, Mannhardt 1921, Ziegler 1921, Tobler 1922, Mukherjee 1935,Matasak and Kendarsi 1980, Von Schwartzenberg 1989, Amier 1991, Pujobroto 1997,Subiyanto and Panggabean 2004, Amijaya 2005, Amijaya and Littke 2005, 2006, Susilawati and Ward 2006, Daulay and Santoso 2008, Permana 2008, 2011, Belkin et al. 2007, 2008, Sosrowidjojo and Saghafi 2009, Mazumder et al. 2010, Bahtiar and Ningrum 2012
Permian Mengkareng Fm Tobler 1922, Zwierzycki 1935, Jongmans 1925, 1935, Thompson 1936,
(with Jambi Flora) Vozenin-Serra 1980-1989, Fontaine and Gafoer 1989, Andi Mangga et al. 1996, Van Waveren et al. 2005, 2007, 2018, Suwarna 2006, Ueno et al. 2006, 2007, Hasibuan 2000,2007, Nainggolan 2012, Crippa et al. 2014, Matysova et al. 2018,

II.3. Sumatra - Forearc

The Sumatra forearc is the region between the Sunda volcanic arc and the offshore accretionary prism, in a zone of oblique convergence between the Northward subducting Indian Ocean (~65mm/year) and the Sundaland margin at Sumatra. An elegant recent review of the Sumatra forearc region is by McCaffrey (2009).

The forearc region overlies a North-dipping subduction zone. Depths to the top of the subducting Indian Ocean Plate ranges from about ~6 km at the trench to ~40 km at the shoreline, to >100 km below the volcanic arc. (e.g. Klingelhoefer et al, 2010).

The Sumatra forearc region is underlain by continental or accretionary crust of the Eurasia/ Sundaland margin, presumably mainly part of the the West Burma- Woyla magmatic arc terrane that collided with Sundaland around ~80-90 Ma. (Barber 2000, Zahirovich et al. 2016). Classic studies of the Cenozoic evolution of the offshore forearc region include Beaudry and Moore (1981, 1985), Berglar et al. 2010, 2017).

The Mentawai islands (Simeulue, Nias, Siberut, Pagai, Enggano, etc.) between the West coast of Sumatra and the Sunda Trench are generally interpreted as the emergent parts of the Sunda accretionary prism (Karig et al. 1980, Moore?, Harbury and Kallagher 1991). Rocks are dominated by complexly imbricated, predominantly NE-dipping Eocene- Early Miocene deep marine sediments, with common diapyric remobilization features.

There are also blocks and slivers of ophiolitic rocks, presumably fragments of Indian Ocean floor crust. Gabbro from the East Simeulue ophiolite gave Late Eocene K-Ar ages (~35.4, 40.1 Ma; Kallagher 1990). This is close to the age of a red radiolarian chert sample from ophiolitic basement, interpreted to be of Middle Eocene age (Ling and Samuel 1998).

Like other forearc regions, the Sumatra forearc region has low heat flows (e.g. Lutz et al. 2009). This means that areas with adequate thermogenic petroleum system are absent or very limited in the Sumatra forearc (e.g. Specht et al. 2000). This is probably the main reason why hydrocarbon prospectivity of the region is perceived to be low, because most other play elements (source facies, carbonate and clastic reservoirs, structure, etc.) appear to be largely similar to the prolific 'back-arc' basins of Sumatra, which have unusually high heat flows.

A number of hydrocarbon exploration wells were drilled in several rounds: Jenney group (1969-1974, Hariadi and Soeparjadi 1975), Union Oil (1968-1978; Rose 1983) and Caltex (1996-?; Specht et al. 2000). Several of the wells tested (biogenic) methane gas, but none were deemed to be commercial accumulations.

Suggest Reading: Sumatra forearc (not a complete listing of all relevant papers)

General, Structure Karig et al. 1978, 1980, Situmorang et al. 1987, Zen 1993, Malod et al. 1993, Malod and Kemal 1996, Kopp et al. 2001, 2008, McCaffrey 1992, 2009, Berglar 2010, Berglar et al. 2008, 2010, 2017, Mukti et al. 2011, 2012, 2017, Hananto et al. 2012
Forearc stratigraphy Beaudry and Moore 1981, 1985, Rose 1983, Matson and Moore 1992, Izart et al. 1994, Lutz et al. 2009 Berglar et al. 2008, 2010, 2017, Frankowicz 2011, Deighton et al. 2014
Accretionary complex Moore and Karig 1976, Karig 1977, Stevens and Moore 1985, Moore et al. 1982, Klingelhoefer et al. 2010, McNeill and Henstock 2014,Frederik et al. 2015.
Hydrocarbons, seeps Hariadi and Soeparjadi 1975, Djajadihardja et al. 1999, Ardhyastuti et al. 2017
Mentawai Fault Zone Diament et al. 1992, Samuel and Harbury 1996, Mukti et al. 2010, 2012
Mentawai Islands Verbeek 1874, 1876, Icke and Martin 1907, Douville 1912, Van der Veen 1913, Tappenbeck 1936, Tjia, and Boentaran 1969,Moore 1978, Moore et al. 1979, 1980,Budhitrisna, 1989, 1990, Harbury et al. 1989, Situmorang et al. 1990, Harbury and Kallagher 1991,Pubellier et al. 1992,Djamal et al. 1994, Endharto et al. 1994, Andi Mangga et al. 1994, Samuel and Harbury 1995, 1997, Ling and Samuel 1998, Aribowo et al. 2014, 2015
Sunda Straits basin Malod and Kemal 1996, Lelgemann et al. 2000, Schluter et al. 2002
(Semangka Graben) Mulyana 2006, Mukti et al. 2015, Handayani and Harjono 2008, Arisbaya et al. 2015, 2016
Bengkulu basin Van Dijk 1860, Fennema 1885, Amin and Gafoer 1985, Mulhadiono and. Asikin 1989, Hall et al. 1993, Daulay and Nursarya 1996, Yulihanto et al. 1995, 1996, Kusnama 2002.

II.4. Sunda Shelf (incl. ‘Tin Islands’, Karimata)

The Sunda Shelf is part of the relatively stable core of 'Sundaland', an area of Paleozoic and older continental terranes (Indochina- East Malaya- SW Borneo?) that amalgamated with SE Asia by Late Triassic time. On the islands Pre-Tertiary rocks outcrop extensively, or are covered by only a thin veneer of Quaternary fluvial and shelfal relict sediments. Except for the areas of Late Paleogene-Neogene basins like the Malay, Natuna and Gulf of Thailand basins it has mainly been an area of erosion and non-deposition since the Jurassic.

The Sunda Shelf today is a broad, relatively flat, shallow epicontinental sea, that is essentially a peneplained land area that was exposed during Pleistocene glacial lowstands and was drowned during the Holocene sealevel rise of ~120m. The stepwise flooding of the Sunda plain since ~13,500 years ago is described in papers from Sonne cruises by Hanebuth and Stategger (2003, 2004) and Hanebuth et al. (2000, 2009).

During the Last Glacial Maximum between ~16-22 ka (and probably also during earlier Pleistocene lowstands) much of the exposed Sunda shelf was covered by tropical rainforest, as suggested by pollen records (Sun et al. 2000, Wang et al. 2007, 2009). Temperatures were slighly cooler, but there was no decrease in humidity that was significant enough to prevent rainforest vegetation.

Drowned Pleistocene incised river valleys on Sunda Shelf

Sunda shelf with drowned incised river valleys that connect to major rivers on Sumatra and West Kalimantan (Molengraaf, 1922)

A pattern of Late Pleistocene relict incised river valleys, draining from Sumatra and Borneo into the South China Sea, was discussed by Molengraaff (1919), Kuenen (1950), Hanebuth et al. (2000), Sathiamurthy and Rachman (2017), Hantoro (2018), etc. (Figures II.4.1, II.4.2). These formed during the Last Glacial Maximum of ~18,000 years ago, when sealevel was ~120m below present-day level..

Not much is known about the composition of basement rocks of the submerged Sunda shelf. On Bangka and Belitung islands the oldest rocks are Late Paleozoic mica schists and low-metamorphic metasediments of the Pemali Group (U Ko Ko 1986). They are isoclinally folded, steeply dipping, WNW-ESE trending and generally south-dipping turbiditic clastics of Permian- Middle Triassic age, with basalts and thin limestones and thin-bedded radiolarian cherts. Some serpentinite has been reported as well. These intensely folded beds are unconformably overlain by gently folded Upper Triassic Tempilang Fm sandstones and are intruded by large ‘post-collisional’ granite intrusives of mainly latest Triassic age, many of which are associated with tin mineralization.

Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits are absent or very thin in the Sunda Shelf region.

SW-NE cross-sections across the islands of Kundur and Batam (top) and Singkep and Lingga (bottom), showing imbricated Permo-Carboniferous meta-sediments, overlain by less-deformed Triassic clastics and intruded by Late Triassic granites (Bothe, 1928)

SW-NE cross-sections across the islands of Kundur and Batam (top) and Singkep and Lingga (bottom), showing imbricated Permo-Carboniferous meta-sediments, overlain by less-deformed Triassic clastics and intruded by Late Triassic granites (Bothe, 1928)

The main economic interest of the Sunda Shelf region is in the tin deposits around Bangka and Belitung (Billiton) islands off the NE coast of Sumatra, which extend to the islands of Lingga and Singkep, NE Sumatra and probably extending to the Karimata islands off SW Kalimantan (Sarmili 1998, 1999, Setijadji et al. 2014, Batchelor 2015). These tin deposits are part of the SE Asia tin belt that stretches for ~3000km from Myanmar through West Thailand and the Malay Peninsula Main Range granites to Bangka- Belitung and possibly further East (Soeria-Atmadja et al. 1986, Schwartz et al. 1995).

Suggest Reading: Sunda Shelf- ‘Tin Islands’ (not a complete listing of all relevant papers)

Geology Akkeringa 1872, Posewitz 1885,Verbeek 1897, Molengraaff 1919, 1921, Aernout 1922, Bothe 1928, Zwierzycki 1933, Westerveld 1936, 1937, 1941, Zwartkruis 1962, Katili 1967, 1968, Ben-Avraham and Emery 1973, U Ko Ko 1986, Andi Mangga and Djamal 1994, Baharuddin and Sidarto 1995
Triassic granites Westerveld 1936, Aleva 1960, Edwards and McLaughlin 1965, Priem and Bon 1982, Sitanggang 1986, Soeria-Atmadja et al. 1986, Dirk 2003, 2004, 2013, Abidin and Harahap 2005, Widana 2013, Widana et al. 2014, 2015, Widana and Priadi 2015, Irzon 2015, 2017, Ng et al. 2017
Primary tin deposits Akkeringa 1873, Groothoff 1916, Van Lohuizen 1918, Akkersdijk 1932, Westerveld 1937, 1941, Adam 1960, Cissarz and Baum 1960, Katili 1967, Hosking 1970, Meyer 1975, Jones et al. 1977, Wisoko 1981, U Ko Ko 1984, Van Wees and de Vente 1984, Notosiswojo and Sugeng 1987, Schwartz and Surjono 1990, 1991, Abidin 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004
Alluvial Tin deposits/ mining Van Diest, P.H. 1873, Posewitz 1886, Verbeek 1897, Rueb 1915, 1920, Bothe 1925, Wing Easton 1925, 1933, 1937, Krol 1960, Osberger 1967, 1968, Hosking 1971, Sujitno 1977, Batchelor 1979, 1986, 1988, Aleva et al.1973,Aleva 1985, Hamza 1995, 1998, Abidin et al. 1999, Soehaimi and Moechtar 1999, Aryanto and Kamiludin 2016
Permian-Triassic fauna/ flora: Hinde 1897, De Neve and De Roever 1947, Kruizinga 1950, Jongmans 1951,De Roever 1951, Van Overeem 1960, Krol 1960, Kanayama 1973,Strimple and Yancey 1976, Hosking et al. 1977, Archbold 1983, Wade-Murphy and Van Konijnenburg 2008
Pleistocene: Molengraaff and Weber 1921, Dickerson 1941, Van Baren and Keil 1950,Emery 1969, Hehuwat 1972, Aleva et al. 1973, Hanebuth et al. 2000-2010, Rahmad et al. 2016, Hantoro 2018

II.5. Natuna, Anambas

This chapter II.5 on the Natuna area contains 127 publications, most of which are on oil and gas exploration and fields in the Cenozoic West and East Natuna basins.

The Natuna area forms the northern edge of the Sunda shelf. During much of Cretaceous time and was most likely an active margin that faced Paleo-Pacific Ocean subduction.

Natuna island is on the N-S trending Natuna Arch basement high, which is part of the non-extended Sunda Shelf. Its core is composed of intensely folded Jurassic- Cretaceous Bunguran Fm deep water clastics and volcanics with radiolarian cherts and gabbros-serpentinites, and is very similar to the 'Danau Fm' of C Kalimantan (Bothe 1928). It is intruded by Late Cretaceous granites, one of which forms the highest mountain on the island (Mt. Tanai; 1035m). This basement complex is unconformably overlain by thin Oligocene- Miocene fluvial sediments.

The Natuna islands are bordered on three sides by Oligocene rift basins, the Malay- W Natuna basin in the West, The South China Sea in the North and the E Natuna basin in the East.

Suggested reading: Natuna area (not a complete listing of all relevant papers)

Natuna area Geology Krause 1898, Bothe 1928, Haile 1970, 1971, Haile and Bignell 1971, Pupilli 1973,Franchino 1990, Franchino and Liechti 1983,Harahap and Wiryosujono 1994, Hakim and Suryono 1994, 1997,Harahap et al. 1996, Hakim 2004, Indranadi et al. 2010
West Natuna Basin Wongkosantiko and Wirojudo 1984, Wirojudo and Wongsosantiko 1985, Daines 1985,Koswara and Suryono 2001,Ginger et al. 1993,Michael and Adrian 1996, Pertamina BPPKA (Natanegara et al.) 1996,Fainstein and Meyer 1997, Phillips et al. 1997, Gunarto et al. 2000, Prasetyo 2002,Maynard et al. 2002, Maynard and Murray 2003, Morley et al. 2003, Hakim et al. 2008, Burton and Wood 2010, Darmadi et al. 2011, Haribowo et al. 2013,Manur and Jacques 2014, Riadini et al. 2017.
East Natuna Basin Sangree 1981, Kraft and Sangree 1982, Eyles and May 1984, May and Eyles 1985,Franchino and Viotti 1986, Rudolph and Lehmann 1989, Mujito et al. 1995, Dunn et al. 1996, Bachtel et al. 2004, Raharja et al. 2013, Darman 2017.